Free Essays on War Is Real

The U.S. moves coincide with reports from Afghan officials in the border area that the United States and its allies were readying another major operation against members of the al Qaeda network and Afghanistan’s Taliban militia, which was ousted from power last year. The United States has blamed al Qaeda for the Sept. 11 attacks on the Pentagon and New York. Advertisement U.S. military officials yesterday reported two firefights in the area, in which U.S. and Australian special forces troops killed four al Qaeda fighters. Army Maj. Gen. Franklin L. â€Å"Buster† Hagenbeck, the U.S. ground commander in Afghanistan, said the two fights occurred northeast of Khost, about a mile from the Pakistani border. In the first incident, Australian forces were attacked with mortar and rocket-propelled grenades, and returned fire, killing two, according to Australian military officials. In the second clash, Hagenbeck said, U.S. and Australian troops ambushed fighters who were moving near Khost before dawn yesterday, killing another two. The operation that appears to be looming promises to be smaller and more diffuse than the offensive against al Qaeda fighters by U.S. and allied forces in the Shahikot region west of Khost in early March. In that battle, which the U.S. military refers to as Operation Anaconda, al Qaeda fighters had dug-in positions with heavy weapons, such as long-range mortars and machine guns configured to shoot down aircraft. TRACKING HANDFULS OF FIGHTERS Cement was poured in some areas to provide firing platforms for the mortars. A communications wire ran from an entrenched position atop a 10,000-foot-high ridge to a nearby bunker serving as a command center, which was powered by a solar collector with a back-up car battery. In the border area, by contrast, U.S. intelligence has not detected massed groups of al Qaeda and Taliban members with prepared figh... Free Essays on War Is Real Free Essays on War Is Real The U.S. moves coincide with reports from Afghan officials in the border area that the United States and its allies were readying another major operation against members of the al Qaeda network and Afghanistan’s Taliban militia, which was ousted from power last year. The United States has blamed al Qaeda for the Sept. 11 attacks on the Pentagon and New York. Advertisement U.S. military officials yesterday reported two firefights in the area, in which U.S. and Australian special forces troops killed four al Qaeda fighters. Army Maj. Gen. Franklin L. â€Å"Buster† Hagenbeck, the U.S. ground commander in Afghanistan, said the two fights occurred northeast of Khost, about a mile from the Pakistani border. In the first incident, Australian forces were attacked with mortar and rocket-propelled grenades, and returned fire, killing two, according to Australian military officials. In the second clash, Hagenbeck said, U.S. and Australian troops ambushed fighters who were moving near Khost before dawn yesterday, killing another two. The operation that appears to be looming promises to be smaller and more diffuse than the offensive against al Qaeda fighters by U.S. and allied forces in the Shahikot region west of Khost in early March. In that battle, which the U.S. military refers to as Operation Anaconda, al Qaeda fighters had dug-in positions with heavy weapons, such as long-range mortars and machine guns configured to shoot down aircraft. TRACKING HANDFULS OF FIGHTERS Cement was poured in some areas to provide firing platforms for the mortars. A communications wire ran from an entrenched position atop a 10,000-foot-high ridge to a nearby bunker serving as a command center, which was powered by a solar collector with a back-up car battery. In the border area, by contrast, U.S. intelligence has not detected massed groups of al Qaeda and Taliban members with prepared figh...

Free Essays on The Visitant

"The Visitant" In my opinion, Markheim’s visitant was a demon†¦ perhaps Satan himself. This was my first impression, and I plan to stick with it. Though the visitant may have seemed partially kind and caring, he was actually, in my opinion, telling partial truths to get Markheim hooked, then telling complete lies. He was also trying to get him to commit even more sins by doing this. If you ask me, this sound like the work of Satan, and if one wished to look deeply into this, he would see that the visitant carries many traits of Satan, as written about in the Bible. Many seem to believe that this visitant was an angel, had many traits of an angel, or was, perhaps, Markheim’s own conscience. Let us examine this situation more closely. If this visitant were, in fact, an angel, would an angel offer to help one steal? Would an angel tell someone to kill? I believe that the fact bringing others to believe that he was an angel lies in him telling Markheim how he had progressed so steadily in doing evil deeds. To others, this may have seemed to be a sort of conviction, but when I look at this situation, it appears to me that the visitant is telling him this, only to prove that he is doomed to it. Another thing making him appear to some as an angel would be that, when Markheim stated firmly that he would not commit to evil, it said, â€Å"The features of the visitor began to undergo a wonderful and lovely change; they brightened and softened with a tender triumph; and, even as they brightened, faded and dislimned.† (pg.46) This may seem as though the visitant’s goal was to turn him towards God, and in it, he was triumphant†¦ This, on the other hand, cannot be so. Let’s not forget his repeated offers to help Markheim steal the money, his constant reference to the return of the maid, or his recommendation to kill her in order to resist having a witness against him. I have even greater proof that this visitant was not sent by G... Free Essays on The Visitant Free Essays on The Visitant "The Visitant" In my opinion, Markheim’s visitant was a demon†¦ perhaps Satan himself. This was my first impression, and I plan to stick with it. Though the visitant may have seemed partially kind and caring, he was actually, in my opinion, telling partial truths to get Markheim hooked, then telling complete lies. He was also trying to get him to commit even more sins by doing this. If you ask me, this sound like the work of Satan, and if one wished to look deeply into this, he would see that the visitant carries many traits of Satan, as written about in the Bible. Many seem to believe that this visitant was an angel, had many traits of an angel, or was, perhaps, Markheim’s own conscience. Let us examine this situation more closely. If this visitant were, in fact, an angel, would an angel offer to help one steal? Would an angel tell someone to kill? I believe that the fact bringing others to believe that he was an angel lies in him telling Markheim how he had progressed so steadily in doing evil deeds. To others, this may have seemed to be a sort of conviction, but when I look at this situation, it appears to me that the visitant is telling him this, only to prove that he is doomed to it. Another thing making him appear to some as an angel would be that, when Markheim stated firmly that he would not commit to evil, it said, â€Å"The features of the visitor began to undergo a wonderful and lovely change; they brightened and softened with a tender triumph; and, even as they brightened, faded and dislimned.† (pg.46) This may seem as though the visitant’s goal was to turn him towards God, and in it, he was triumphant†¦ This, on the other hand, cannot be so. Let’s not forget his repeated offers to help Markheim steal the money, his constant reference to the return of the maid, or his recommendation to kill her in order to resist having a witness against him. I have even greater proof that this visitant was not sent by G...

Sales Channels in Retail Industry Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Sales Channels in Retail Industry - Case Study Example 2.2 Carrefour The Fournier and Defforey families created the Carrefour Company in 1959. They opened the first supermarket in 1960 in Annecy, France. Promodes was created in 1961 by the group and the first supermarket 'Promodes' was opened in the year 1962. A new concept of the hypermarket was invented in 1963 by the Carrefour group. The first hypermarket was opened in Sainte Genevive des Bois. In 1969 Carrefour opened a store abroad in Belgium. With a move into Belgium in 1969, Carrefour began its internationalization. tThe group Promodes adopted many banner names in the 1970s such as Shopi and Continent. We can say therefore that Carrefour was an important brand with the aim of growing and expanding its operations into new countries. By the end of 1971, the company was operating 16 wholly owned stores, had an equity interest in five stores operated as joint ventures, and had franchise agreements with seven additional stores. The idea of the hypermarket stressed mass sales, low delivery cost and discount everyday to achieve high rotation. by1999; it had 681 hypermarkets, 2,259 supermarkets, 3,124 hard discount stores, and 1,921 convenience stores and other formats selling under its banner. The stores were located mostly in France but also throughout Europe, Asia, and Latin America. Carrefour internationalized much faster than Wal-Mart. 3.0 Product Sector The Carrefour Group mostly deals with consumer goods and services. These include convenience goods such as food products, which are sold by all formats of retail stores, and shopping goods and services (household appliances, electronic devices) which are sold by hypermarkets only. For Wal-Mart, the major merchandise lines include house wares, consumer electronics and... As the paper declares Wal-Mart was founded in 1962 by Sam Walton and his brother James â€Å"Bud† Walton. They first started with a single discount store in Rogers, Arkansas. The Discount store consisted of servicing small and middle-sized towns at prices equal to or lower than prices in nearby cities. The company has registered a unique success story in the history of retail industry credited to the leadership of Sam Walton. The company internationally came off the ground by opening its first store abroad in Mexico City in 1991. The company then extended its international presence to Puerto Rico, Canada, China, Brazil, Argentina, South Korea and Germany and today operates more than 600 stores in international arena. According to the research findings the Carrefour Group mostly deals with consumer goods and services. These include convenience goods such as food products, which are sold by all formats of retail stores, and shopping goods and services (household appliances, electronic devices) which are sold by hypermarkets only. For Wal-Mart, the major merchandise lines include house wares, consumer electronics and groceries or food products. The two therefore deal with consumer goods and services hence are competitors as the products are similar. Wal-Mart differentiated business departments to thereby serving different market segments. Wal-Mart’s success is built on the practice of a lowest price everyday strategy that significantly reduces searching cost.

Semiotic and Semantic Information Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Semiotic and Semantic Information - Essay Example This curiosity makes it possible for us to achieve such knowledge and understanding through which the form of communication would no longer be misinterpreted. In the absence of any solid and objective criteria to analyze a communicative effort, we can only ask the sender what the meaning is. This is where the study of communication rests on theories and embraces the theories and ideas of philosophy and psychology. I wish to quote Murungi (2003) who expresses the similar view on the importance of studying communication in the words as follows: In semiotics we have [a lot] of work which examines the processes of communication by way of determining, at least theoretically, how and why symbols convey meaning. On the other hand, in visual communication we have a professional and academic area which develops and puts into use the media of visual communication, i.e., the products, in the form of icons, signs, graphical symbols, illustrations, pictorial sequences and other interfaces by which information is represented and communicated visually (Murungi 2003, p. 15). But, this communication cannot be efficient and reliable unless we understand exactly what is the true information and how this information can be passed to its receivers in order to make a systematic communication. Stamper (1987) highlights this very problem in the following words: If you want to communicate then you must stand on a technical platform with the appropriate physical, empiric and syntactic properties (roughly speaking, the right hardware, communications, and software in the most general sense). Improving them can have profound effects on society. For example, science as we know it today could not be practiced on the platform of a script technology; monks copying manuscripts in penny numbers multiplied the errors because in most cases they did not really understand the text, and even less so the accompanying diagrams; so the critical examination of theories and methods, on which scientific progress depends, had no chance to proceed until printing made possible the rapid dissemination of exact multiple copies under the control of the author, for discussion and constructive criticism. Technology reduced the costs and so improved aspects of quality from which the pay-off appeared on the social level in the form of modern science. (Stamper, 1995, p. 27 3) Semantic and Semiotic Information Information is an important factor of gaining knowledge abuts things and objects in our daily life. According to Luciand Floridi (2005) "[t]he concept of information has become central in most contemporary philosophy. However, recent surveys have shown no consensus on a single, unified definition of semantic information." Information is understood and interpreted differently by every branch of knowledge. Semantics is the branch of linguistics that deals with the study of meaning. Semantics is the study of the relationships between signs and symbols and the meaning that they represent Semantics is used differently in different fields of knowledge like psychology, philosophy and more recently, in information systems. However, the main concern of semantic studies is to understand the exact meaning of an information being conveyed or received. Likewise, semiotics can

Thorpe Parks history Essay Example for Free

Thorpe Parks history Essay In 1970, the site was an active gravel pit owned by Ready Mix Concrete and in 1971 work was granted for the construction of a 500 acre Water Park. Thunder River and its surrounding area were developed in 1987, and 1988 saw the opening of the 630 seat Palladium Theatre. In 1989 Canada Creek, incorporating Loggers Leap, was developed. Since 1991 many attractions have been added. In 1996, X:/No Way Out, the worlds first pitch dark, backward roller coaster was introduced and for two years running, in 1996 and 1997, Thorpe Park was voted the most Parent-Friendly leisure in the UK. Pearsons, who owned The Tussauds Group, bought Thorpe Park in 1998. On 19th October 1998 it was announced that Pearson had sold the Tussauds Group to Charterhouse Development Capital for i 352m. Europes first 4D Cinema experience, Pirates 4D was opened in 1999 and in 2000, Europes highest water ride, Tidal Wave was added to the excitement of Thorpe Park. The Tussauds Group Vision and Mission Vision: Entertaining People. Mission: To deliver real growth in profits to take Europes leading entertainment world-wide. The Marketing Department are a small team who work across both Thorpe Park and Chessington World of Adventures. It is the overall responsibility of the Marketing dept to ensure that the brand identities of the two Parks are maintained in all communication both on and off the Parks. They do this through first identifying the brand identity, target market, and visual representation of the brand, ie the logo. For Thorpe Park the target market is families with children over 12. Each year the marketing department will put a marketing plan together which covers the following areas: Product. Although almost with out exception a new attraction is launched each year, and the main launch communication will focus on that, general communication about the rest of the Park is required. Theme Parks provide a whole day out for the family and its not just bout the rides. The other attractions, places to eat, games, photography, the atmosphere all play an important part in delivering a great day out. Pricing. There is a complex pricing structure for the Park which looks to maximise the revenue the Park can achieve with its targeted number of visitors. Marketing will review the pricing each year and along with the finance department look at how the budgeted targets can be achieved through the pricing matrix. Advanced sales are important to the business so tickets booked in advance are discounted, also those booked via the Internet are further discounted as this is a more efficient way for us to produce the tickets. Advanced tickets reduce the queues at admissions as visitors already have their tickets and can go straight in to the Park. Promotion. Promotion of the Park happens via a number of different communication channels. Advertising. This is generally broken down into two areas; the creative production of the advert and then the choice of where to place that advert, TV, Radio, Press etc. For the year 2002 communication for Thorpe Park is the launch of the Worlds First 10 Looping Coaster, Colossus, targeting a young teen market. New adverts will be created for both TV and radio use. Promotions. Promotions are very import in incentivising visitors to come to the Park. The incentive is generally either a Buy One get One Free mechanic or a discount of the full adult or child price. Thorpe Park runs promotions on its own or in conjunction with the Tussauds Group, ie Tesco. Promotions are often run with a wide variety of retail and media partners, newspaper, or solus via a direct mail campaign to surrounding homes. Public Relations. This area is all about getting positive exposure in the media, TV, Radio and Press. This is generally achieved through issuing Press Releases and conducting interviews with journalists. Measuring the Success. Throughout the year, how the Park is doing against its financial targets is constantly reviewed, but in addition Marketing conducts ongoing research in to how the Park is performing on a daily basis. Questionnaires are handed out to visitors as they leave asking them to rank the rides experiences, eating places, how friendly and helpful the staff were, etc. This provides information on where things may be going wrong and how to put them right. New Media is a crucial area for involvement now and in the future. In addition to maintaining its own site: www. thorpepark. com, the Marketing department looks to exploit other opportunities for advertising, promotions and PR on other sites. Use of agencies. Thorpe Park uses a wide variety of agencies as they bring different areas of expertise and experience to the Park. We use and advertising agency to create the TV, Radio ads etc and also for all the design work for the Gate Map. The space for the TV, Radio slots etc is purchased by a media buying agency. We also use a Sales Promotion agency, PR agency and Internet design agencies. Some of these are different agencies to those used for Chessington World of Adventures. Corporate Hospitality makes it possible for businesses to entertain their guests at Thorpe Park. Thousands of corporate guests can be catered for at any one time, or even hire the whole Park for an evening. Education. An establishment like Thorpe Park offers the opportunity for students studying the leisure industry, business or animals to visit the Park and find out more about their subject. For this reason, it is possible for groups to incorporate an educational talk into their visit.

The Place of Destiny, Fate, Free Will and Free Choice in Macbeth Essay

The Place of Fate in Macbeth    Shakespeare was wont to employ the supernatural force of fate throughout his tragic play Macbeth. Let us examine in this essay what we mean by the above statement. In Everybody's Shakespeare: Reflections Chiefly on the Tragedies, Maynard Mack explains that the witches are associated with fate:    Except in one phrase (I.3.6) and in the stage directions, the play always refers to the witches as weyard - or weyward - sisters. Both spellings are variations of weird, which in Shakespeare's time did not mean "freakish," but "fateful" - having to do with the determination of destinies. Shakespeare had met with such creatures in Holinshed, who regularly refers to the supernatural agents with whom Macbeth has dealings as "the three sisters," or "the three weird sisters," i.e., the three Fates. (185)    L.C. Knights in the essay "Macbeth" explains the place of fate in the decline of Macbeth:      "One feels," says W.C. Curry, "that in proportion as the good in him diminishes, his liberty of free choice is determined more and more by evil inclination and that he cannot choose the better course. Hence we speak of destiny or fate, as if it were some external force or moral order, compelling him against his will to certain destruction." Most readers have felt that after the initial crime there is something compulsive in Macbeth's murders; and at the end, for all his "valiant fury," he is certainly not a free agent. He is like a bear tied to a stake, he says; but it is not only the besieging army that hems him in; he is imprisoned in the world he has made. (102)    In Fools of Time: Studies in Shakespearean Tragedy, Northrop Frye stresses the connection between the witches and fate:    The... ...ey, A.C. Shakespearean Tragedy. New York: Penguin Books, 1991. Coles, Blanche. Shakespeare's Four Giants. Rindge, NH: Richard R. Smith Publisher, Inc., 1957. Coursen, H. R. Macbeth: a Guide to the Play. Westport, CN: Greenwood Press, 1997. Frye, Northrop. Fools of Time: Studies in Shakespearean Tragedy. Toronto, Canada: University of Toronto Press, 1967. Knights, L.C. "Macbeth." Shakespeare: The Tragedies. A Collectiion of Critical Essays. Alfred Harbage, ed. Englewwod Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1964. Mack, Maynard. Everybody's Shakespeare: Reflections Chiefly on the Tragedies. Lincoln, NB: University of Nebraska Press, 1993. Shakespeare, William. The Tragedy of Macbeth. http://chemicool.com/Shakespeare/macbeth/full.html, no lin. Wilson, H. S. On the Design of Shakespearean Tragedy. Toronto, Canada: University of Toronto Press, 1957.

Agriculture in the Caribbean

TABLE OF CONTENTS ROLE AND IMPORTANCE OF AGRICULTURE IN THE CARIBBEAN Foreign exchange Contribution to GDP/GNP Food security Employment Environmental management CONSTRAINTS AFFECTING CARIBBEAN AGRICULTURE Climate Topography Appropriate Technology Rural Infrastructure Land Tenure and Fragmentation Credit Facilities Marketing Facilities Extension Services Praedial Larceny CLASSIFICATION OF CARIBBEAN FARMS Distinguishing Features of Farmers (According to Size) Large Farms Medium Sized Farms Small Farms Distinguishing Features of Farms (According to Produce) Crops Farm Livestock Monoculture/Mono-cropping Mixed Cropping Mixed Farming Organic Farming Agro-Forestry Integrated Farm INSTITUTIONS WHICH SUPPORT LOCAL AND REGIONAL AGRICULTURAL Rural Agricultural Development Authority (RADA) Bodles Research Station: Jamaica Livestoc Association (J. L. A. ) Jamaica Agricultural Society (J. A. S. ): Scientific Research Council (SRC Sugar Industry Research Institute (SIRI) Caribbean Community Caribbean Development Bank (CDB) Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development Institute (CARDI ) Caribbean Food and Nutrition Institute (CFNI) University of the West Indies (UWI) College of Agriculture, Science and Education (CASE) Inter-American Institute for Cooperation in Agriculture (IICA) Food and Agriculture Organization (F AO) Organization of American States (OAS) Inter-American Development Bank (I. D. B. ) The Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) Caribbean Basin Initiative (C. B. I) United States Agency for International Development (USAID) European Union (EU) INTRODUCTION TO SOIL SCIENCE Functions of Soil in our Environment Soil Formation Weathering Soil formation factors Soil Profile Physical Properties of soils Soil texture Soil Structure Porosity BULK DENSITY SOIL COLOUR SOIL WATER Importance of soil Organic Matter Chemical Properties of the soil Soil pH Plant nutrients HOW THE SOIL HOLD PLANT NUTRIENTS? MANAGING SOIL FERTILITY FERTILIZERS Advantages of organic fertilizers Disadvantages of organic fertilizers Inorganic fertilizers Fertilizer grade Advantages of inorganic fertilizers Disadvantages of inorganic fertilizers Practical activity Identifying types of fertilizers Methods of applying fertilizer Importance of plant sexual reproduction in agriculture The flower Pollination Types of pollinations Self pollination Cross pollination Fertilizatio ROLE AND IMPORTANCE OF AGRICULTURE IN THE CARIBBEAN Foreign exchange The agriculture sector earns foreign exchange by exporting traditional and non-traditional products. In addition to earning foreign exchange, the agriculture sector may also produce food and raw material for local consumption; this reduces the need to import similar products, resulting in the saving of foreign exchange. The foreign exchange earned and saved is used to purchase other goods and services which the country needs/want but does not produce. Imported products must be purchased using foreign exchange. In addition to trading, foreign exchange is also used to repay international debt. Contribution to GDP/GNP GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT – GDP GROSS NATIONAL PRODUCT – GNP GDP and GNP are means of measuring the national income of a country. The GDP measures the value of goods and services produced locally, in a given period. The GNP is determined by adding the value of goods and services produced in a country (GDP) and also what is earned abroad and returned to the country, in a given period. GDP = AGRICULTURE + TOURISM + MINING + MANUFACTURING etc. GNP = AGRICULTURE + TOURISM + MINING + MANUFACTURING etc. + EARNINGS FROM ABROAD Agriculture contributes to the overall wealth of a country by contributing to GNP and GDP. As the contribution from agriculture and other sectors increases the wealthier the country becomes. This means more funding will be available to improve infrastructure and services such as roads, education and health. The Jamaican agriculture sector contributes about seven percent to GDP, only tourism contributes more. Food security Food security is concerned with the availability of adequate supply of food and access to the food by all the citizens of a country. Food security exists when all people at all times have physical and economic access to ufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences. Food security can be affected by; †¢ Availability or access to arable lands for agriculture †¢ Technology used †¢ Climatic conditions †¢ Conflicts †¢ Ability to import food †¢ Poverty FOOD SECURITY = ADEQUATE FOOD SUPPLY + ACCESS TO FOO D BY ALL Employment Agriculture is a major source of employment in the rural areas of most Caribbean countries. Therefore, agriculture is the primary means of promoting rural development and reducing rural to urban migration and its consequence urban decay. Employment in agriculture ranges from unskilled workers to highly trained professionals such as an agronomist or an agricultural engineer. Also, agriculture offers direct employment for example a broiler farm [pic] or an extension officer. There is also indirect employment in down streams. Down streams industries, such as food processing, generally use agricultural products as raw materials to produce value added products or manufacture new products. Supermarkets, financial institutions and businesses benefit from the earnings of individuals involved in agriculture. Environmental management Through agricultural activities man interacts with the environment. The effects of this interaction may be positive or negative. Since agriculture depends on the natural resources, the goal of all persons who benefit directly and in directly from agriculture should be to promote the use of agricultural practices that are environmentally friendly. CONSTRAINTS AFFECTING CARIBBEAN AGRICULTURE Climate The major areas of consideration are: temperature and rainfall. The climate of the Caribbean is the tropical marine climate; therefore it is warm and moist. The combination of warmth and moisture create ideal conditions for many pests and diseases that affect both crops and livestock. Also, the high temperatures make it more difficult to successfully rear some breeds of livestock in the Caribbean, especially those which originate in temperate areas such as Europe. Topography Topography refers to the relief or the shape of the land. The topography of most Caribbean islands is hilly in the interior with most of the flat land near the coast. The limited flat land is generally used for housing and settlements, manufacturing industries and plantation type agriculture e. g. sugar cane. Steep slopes affect farming by: †¢ Limiting access to farm plots †¢ Restrict the use of farm machines †¢ Increase the risk of soil erosion Appropriate Technology Technology: the use of tools, machinery and knowledge and to complete tasks. Increasing production in agriculture is linked to the use of modern technology e. g. tractors, hybrid seeds, and efficient irrigation systems. Appropriate technology refers to the use of tools, machinery and knowledge which is suited for local conditions or a specific area or condition. Technology should be appropriate to the economic status of the farmer, farm size, climate and level of education etc. Appropriateness technology for small farmers can be judged using the characteristics shown below; †¢ Simple †¢ Low maintenance †¢ Locally made †¢ Access to spare parts †¢ Easy to operate †¢ Affordable †¢ Small/compact [pic] [pic] Rural Infrastructure The farm family needs to have access to basic amenities for both agricultural and domestic activities. If rural areas are not provided with some of the basic infrastructural needs, farmers will not be very productive; also the business of farming may become less attractive or no longer feasible to the farm family. Some of the basic infrastructure includes: †¢ Electricity Water supply †¢ Proper roads †¢ Telephone †¢ Health care †¢ Schools Land Tenure and Fragmentation Land tenure speaks to the ownership of land. Most small farmers do not own their own land or own very small fragmented plots usually in hilly areas. When farmers do not own their own land, they are not motivated to develop the land or put permanent structures on the land. Land fragmentation occurs as land is divided among family members from generation to generation. The land is divided into numerous plots and not all the plots are generally used for agricultural production but for other purposed such as housing. Credit Facilities As with other types of businesses it is often very necessary to borrow money from lending institutions to start, expand or acquire assts for an agricultural enterprise. Because farming is considered to be a high risk business, institutions are not very willing to lend money for agriculture. Very often farmers complain that the cost of borrowing money (interest rate) is too high; while the price of the products they produce is relatively low. Some farmers will experience difficulty accessing loans because they lack suitable collateral such as land. Collateral is material of value used to cover the cost of the loan in the even that the borrower is unable to pay. Marketing Facilities Marketing involves bringing the producer and the consumer together. Marketing also includes transporting, pricing, packaging, storage and advertising. Farmers in Jamaica experience difficulty in selling their produce due to: †¢ A lack of properly organized systems to bring buyers and sellers together i. e. buyers are not aware of what farmers are producing and farmers are not fully aware of the needs of buyers. †¢ Competition from imported agricultural products Extension Services Although there is an increasing number of professionals now operating farming enterprises, most Jamaican farmers are relatively old and have only basic education (grade 9). Therefore there is need to give these farmers constant and individual help to improve their agricultural knowledge. Extension officers provide a vital link between the farmer and the researcher that develop modern farming technology and solutions for on the farm problems. The economic constraints being experienced in Jamaica have resulted in the reduction in the size of the extension service. Praedial Larceny Nothing is more discouraging to a farmer than the theft of his produce. CLASSIFICATION OF CARIBBEAN FARMS Farms are classified according to size and what they produce. Distinguishing Features of Farmers (According to Size) Large Farms Large farms occupy more than 25 hectares, mainly produce one crop or type of livestock and are geared for export. These farms are operated and managed by individuals, co- operations or government and in some cases absentee owners. They employ a skilled labour force as well as semi-skilled and unskilled workers. They farms tend to be highly mechanized or in some cases little mechanization is used but instead large numbers of workers. The profits from these farms in the case of foreign owners are repatriated. Medium Sized Farms The size of these farms range anywhere from 2. 5 to 25 hectares. They are owned and operated by the farmer and usually requires hired labour. These farms usually produce a variety of crops or livestock or both crops and livestock for domestic use. In recent time medium sized farms are accessing export markets. Small Farms These farms are less than 0. 5 hectares to a maximum of 2. hectares. They are owned and operated by the farmer and family labour is used. They produce for local markets and use simple hand tools e. g. hoe, fork, and cutlass. Distinguishing Features of Farms (According to Produce) Crops Farm These farms are of all sizes and produce a variety of crops for the local and possibly export market. Some mechanization is involved especially in land preparation and pest and disease control. The farmer usually owns the land and some labour is hired. [pic] Livestock These farms are also of all sizes depending on the type of enterprise e. . fish, cattle, rabbits and goats. It is owned and operated by an individual, group or government and production is mainly for the domestic market e. g. pork, beef, fish are all used in Jamaica. Monoculture/Mono-cropping In a mono-cropping system, the farmer concentrates on growing only one major crop e. g. sugarcane on a plot of land or in a particular area for an extended period of time. Relatively few of these farms are found in the region. Absentee owners appoint managers to run the farms. In general, these farms are productive but the profits are exported. In cases where the farms are locally owned the profits remain in the country and help with its development. On these farms soil and crop management are uniform, since they are dealing with one crop. This repeating of crop and soil management practices can have negative effects such as: †¢ Grater opportunity of spreading pests and diseases, which may destroy the entire crop. †¢ Continuous ploughing with heavy equipment can destroy soil structure †¢ Cultural practices such as burning of sugar cane can destroy soil structure and beneficial soil organisms. Mixed Cropping In mixed cropping the farmer depends on several plots for his income. Maximum use is made of land space and it is easier to check the spread of pest and diseases. In mixed cropping: †¢ Crops may be grown on the same farm but on different plots. [pic] †¢ Crops may be intercropped on the same plot. [pic] Situation: a farmer often grows one main crop e. g. sugar cane but also cultivates other (cash crops), which he uses to provide his weekly supply of food and to help pay his bills by selling the surplus produce. Such a situation is considered mixed cropping since he has other crops on which he can depend. Mixed Farming Involves the growing of crops and the rearing of animals on the same farm. They can be of and size but usually medium to large and production is basically for a local market, some produce may be exported. The farms are owned and operated by individuals, groups or government. Advantages: o Maximum use is made of land space. o Farms have more than one source of income. o It is easier to check the spread of pests and diseases. Disadvantages †¢ A higher level of management is required. †¢ There is a need to find market for different types of produce. †¢ Animals can damage crops if the y are not properly enclosed or tied. Organic Farming Organic farming is the use of agricultural systems to produce food and fiber without the use of artificial pesticides, fertilizer and genetically modified plants. Crop rotation and the building of biodiversity are very important. Pesticides used come from plants and are used as a last resort and their effects are short lived. Soil amendments come from renewable resources such as farmyard manure and composts. The strategy is to build up healthy soils through cover crops, composts and organically based amendments to build up healthy soils. These plants are better able to resist pest and diseases. Weeds are controlled through cover crops, mulching, flame weeding and crop rotation. When pests and diseases get out of control a variety of strategies are used for their control e. g. insect predators, mating disruption, traps, barriers and bio-chemicals. Agro-Forestry Agro-forestry is an integrated land use system. It refers to land –use systems in which trees are grown on the same land as agricultural crops and/or animals in a spatial arrangement or in a time sequence. Some examples are coconuts under-planted with pasture, apiculture with tree systems and aquaculture under mangroves. Agro-forestry systems resemble the natural ecosystems. The general aim of agro-forestry is to supply and increase a sustainable output of the basic necessities including cash. Agro-forestry is important because the following reasons. †¢ Environmental deterioration – due to the actions of man, natural disasters and volcanic action lead to deforestation. †¢ High rates of oxidation of organic matter due to high temperatures as well as excessive evaporation of moisture. †¢ Soil erosion. †¢ Population pressure for land for a variety of purposes such as housing. †¢ Need for fuel wood. Integrated Farm Farms are said to be integrated when the waste products from one enterprise is used as an in put in another production enterprise e. g. poultry waste can be used in fish farming and cattle rearing. Integrated farms attempt to eliminate the accumulation of agricultural waste by further utilization in production. Sugarcane Feed for ruminants (cattle) Waste Garden (compost) Garden excess and waste Feed ruminants INSTITUTIONS WHICH SUPPORT LOCAL AND REGIONAL AGRICULTURAL For a country’s agricultural sector to maximize its potential and contribute to a nation’s development; numerous organizations and institutions must play an integral role. These institutions may be government or private, local based, regional or international. The roles played by these institutions may encompass: Education ? Research ? Technical assistance ? Poverty reduction ? Rural development These organizations may form a cornerstone for development and ensure sustainable development, food security, poverty reduction, and prosperity. Some institutions have specific roles e. g. CFNI – nutrition. While some are broad based dealing with a wide cross section of development e. g. CDB. Rural Agricultural Development Authority (RADA) The objectives of RADA include: ? To provide technical extension assistance primarily to farmers in rural Jamaica in an effort to increase production and productivity. ? To train and develop extension personnel at all levels through in-service training programmes, geared towards improving their efficiency. ? To administer farmer training programmes and workshops thereby rendering farmers more knowledgeable and capable. ? To catalyze agricultural credit and input for small farmers. ? To aid in organization of marketing chains beneficial to both farmers and consumers. To cooperate with agencies involved in the development of rural infrastructure with a view to improving the quality of life in rural communities. ? To develop and operate service centres at strategic locations around the island thus bringing the service closer to farmers. ? To be the implementing agency for selected projects that impact on farmers and the biological environment. E. g. watershed development projects and fa rmer registration. ? To provide a free flow of information from policy makers and research organizations to farmers and from farmers upwards to these same persons. Bodles Research Station: Government funded research institution that carries out research in both crop production and animal husbandry to develop new and improved methods of farming, pest and disease control. They also seek to develop new plant and animal breeds which are suitable for local conditions. Jamaica Livestock Association (J. L. A. ): The J. L. A. is concerned with the development of the Jamaica livestock sector. It is a public company offering shares therefore it is concerned with the welfare of share holders. They provide agricultural support services for improving development of the industry such as quality input and technology development and implementation. Jamaica Agricultural Society (J. A. S. ): The JAS represent the interests of all farmers lobbying for agricultural friendly policies for agricultural sustainability and development. They also promote and support agricultural and industrial shows as well as operating a supply subsidiary (JLA farm stores), providing agricultural inputs at affordable costs to farmers. Scientific Research Council (SRC): They undertake research into new and improved technologies in agriculture. They are currently spearheading efforts to implement tissue culture and hydroponics in Jamaica. Sugar Industry Research Institute (SIRI) SIRI main function is to research and develop methods to improve agriculture technology as it relates to sugar cane production. They aim to improve efficiency in all areas of sugar cane production. Their main functions are: †¢ The development of new varieties of sugar cane which are high yielding, drought resistant, pest and disease resistant. †¢ The development of machinery and equipment suitable for Jamaican conditions. †¢ Provide technical assistance in irrigation, drainage and water management. Develop ideal fertilizer preparations based on the nutritional requirement of a crop. †¢ Promote the safe and efficient use of agro chemicals e. g. herbicides and insecticides. †¢ To study, monitor and provide technical advice in control and eradication of pests and diseases. CARICOM – Caribbean Community (Established by th e treaty of Chaguarnas May 1, 1973) Aim is to enhance regional trade, develop common policies, and act as a negotiating body among member states. So as to promote economic, social, cultural and political development through integration. Caribbean Development Bank (CDB) Provides loans for development and establishment of agricultural industries and farms e. g. irrigation, training, fisheries, as well as infrastructural development e. g. roads, water supply. Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development Institute (CARDI ) †¢ Provide for and conduct research into farming methods, pest and disease control, plant and animal breeding, technology for long term development. †¢ Coordinate and integrate research efforts in member states. †¢ Undertake training of farmers and agricultural personnel. †¢ Improve the utilization of modern technology to boost agricultural production. Caribbean Food and Nutrition Institute (CFNI) †¢ Offers technical support for reducing malnutrition †¢ Promote proper nutrition education and provide educational material to this end. †¢ Develop nutrition policies †¢ To collaborate with governments to improve food security. †¢ To improve nutritional aspects of health services. University of the West Indies (UWI) †¢ Provide degree training in agriculture and related fields †¢ Conduct agricultural research for improving farming methods and pest and disease control. College of Agriculture, Science and Education (CASE) Offers training in agriculture. Inter-American Institute for Cooperation in Agriculture (IICA) A specialized agency of the O. A. S. their aim is to promote agricultural development in a sustainable manner working with governments and Ministries of Agriculture. Their focus is geared toward †¢ Rural development and well-being. †¢ Diversification of agricultural production. †¢ Value-added production (agro-processing). †¢ Improving the region’s position in international trade. †¢ Research and development Food and Agriculture Organization (F AO) An organized branch of the United Nations which aims to †¢ Promote agricultural development. Pursue food security and improve nutrition. †¢ Develop infrastructure in rural areas. †¢ Provide information and technical assistance on a project basis to farmers. †¢ Provide a neutral platform for countries to meet and discuss issues and advice them on policy making. †¢ Coordinate government efforts at food security and improved nutrition. Organization of American States (OAS) Includes Thirty four (34) member states from the Americas. Provides technical assistance to countries and aims to improve health care and public administration. Inter-American Development Bank (I. D. B. ) The oldest and largest regional institution of multilateral development. The aim is to accelerate economic and social development in Latin American and Caribbean countries. Operations cover the entire spectrum of infrastructure, energy, transportation and urban development. Current lending priorities: poverty reduction, social equity and modernization. The Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) The lead organization in delivering Canada’s official development assistance programme. Assistance is provided in the form of goods and services, transfer of knowledge, skills and financial contributions. Areas of concentration include: – basic human needs – infrastructure – private sector development – women in development – human rights – environmental protection. These objectives are achieved by working with both the private sectors and governments of respective countries. Caribbean Basin Initiative (C. B. I) Enacted as Caribbean Basin Economic Recovery Act by United States. Products from beneficiary countries may be eligible for duty-free treatment in the U. S. A. United States Agency for International Development (USAID) Undertakes numerous projects aimed at improving the quality of life of citizens in developing countries. They also aim to expand democracy and free market activities ultimately leading to economic growth. European Union (EU) The EU provides grants and loans for a wide range of development projects and environmental protection initiatives in developing countries. They also provide technical assistance for many of these projects. INTRODUCTION TO SOIL SCIENCE Functions of Soil in our Environment. ? Habitat for organisms; Microbes, earth worms, rodents ? Medium for plant growth; Provide essential minerals and water. ? Important component in the water cycle ; storages in pores and evaporation ? Engineering medium; construction of roads and building etc. Soil Formation Soil Composition [pic] Soil formation is slow process. In the best conditions 1mm of soil may be form in a year. However, under poor condition it may take thousands of years for the same quantity of soil to form. Although soil is a renewable resource, in many areas soil is being lost at a much faster rate than it can be produced. SUMMARY OF SOIL FORMATION PROCESSES [pic]Transformation – weathering and decomposition [pic]Translocation – movement of soil materials up or down the soil profile [pic]Addition – rainfall, OM, deposited rock materials pic]Losses – erosion, washing out of soil material in the ground water(leaching) Weathering This is the physical and chemical breakdown of rocks and the mineral found in rocks. i) Physical weathering or disintegration involves the break up rocks into smaller fragments. Physical weathering is often referred to as mechanical weathering, since it involve the action of forces. Agents of physical weathering or disintegration: ? Temperature changes: – Contraction and expansion weaken the structure of the rocks. ? Running water ? Plants: – the roots of plants can grow between rock spaces and break up the rocks as they grow and become larger. Humans and animals The diagram shows the result of physical weathering; a single rock disintegrated into many fragments [pic] ii) Chemical weathering involve changing the chemical composition of rock s/ the minerals in rock via chemical reactions. Primary minerals such as quartz Sio2 are changed into changed into secondary mineral such as aluminium silicates (clay mineral). Chemical weathering is accelerated by the physical disintegration of rocks, which increases the surface of rocks, causing the rate of chemical reactions to increase. In addition, water and warmth are important factors which, influencing the rate of chemical weathering. Water is a universal solvent in which reactions can take place while, as temperature increases the rate of reactions increases. EXAMPLES OF CHEMICAL WEATHERING Carbonation and solution: Water combines with Carbon dioxide to form carbonic acid. Examples: (1) H2O + CO2 ———— H2CO3 + CaCO3 ———Ca(HCO3)2 (2) CaCo3 + H2CO3 ——- Ca2+ + 2HCO3- Hydration: – Water combine with rock minerals causing a chemical change in the mineral structure. Examples: anhydride (CaSO4) + Water (H2O) = Gypsum (CaSO4-H2O) 2Fe2O3 + 3H2O ——- 2Fe2O3. 3H2O Hematite limonite Hydrolysis: The water molecule splits in to H+ and OH-and reacts with minerals CaSiO 3 + 2H2O ——– HSiO3 + Ca(OH)2 Calcium silicates silicic acid calcium hydroxide Oxidation: Oxygen combines with mineral elements to form oxides. Example: a rusting sign post. Soil formation factors These are environmental factors, which determines the type of soils that are formed i. soil colour, profile depth, chemical features and biotic characteristics. i) Parent material: Parent material refers to the type of rock material from which soil forms. It includes bedrock, transported (by water, wind or gravity) and deposited materials originated from rocks. Alluvial – transported by water Colluvial – dislodged and deposited by gravity *** Soil is not necessarily formed from the underlining bed rock *** The parent material contributes to the physi cal and chemical properties of the soil, such as texture, pH, mineral content. |ROCKS CHRACTERISTICS | | | | |Igneous rocks |Rocks formed from cooled molten material | | |Volcanic rocks may acid or basic | | |Granite is an example of igneous rocks | | | | |Sedimentary rocks |The most abundant rock types | | |Formed from deposited materials included rock fragments | | |Usually layered | | |Limestone and sand stone are examples | | | | |Metamorphic rocks |Formed from sedimentary rock when these rocks are exposed to great heat and | | |pressure. | | |Example limestone changed to marble | PARENT MATERIAL |SOIL PROPERTIES | | | | |SOFT LIMESTONE |DARK IN CLOUR | | |SHALLOW | | |UNDERLAID WITH MARL | | | | |HARD LIMESTONE |SOIL VARY IN COLOUR FROM BROWN TO RED, INCLUDING BAUXITIC SOILS | | | | |SHALES |FREE DRAIINING | | RICH IN POTASH | | |PRONE TO SLIPPING AND EROSION | | | | |PURPLE CONGLOMORATES |OCCUR MAINLY ON SLOPES | | |SUSCEPTABLE TO EROSION | | |LOW WATER HOLDING CAPA CITY | | | | |OTHER CONGLOMORATES |ACID CLAYS | | |LOW FERTLITY | | | | |GRANITE AND POPHYRY |GRAVELLY SOIL | | |SHALLOW | | |ACIDIC | | |LIGHT TEXTURE | | |EASELY ERODED | ii) Climate: Agents of climate such as temperature, moisture (rainfall) and wind contributes to rock disintegration and chemical weathering and consequently the type soil that is formed. Warm temperature, as is the case in the tropics, increase the rate of weathering. The amount of moisture present will also affect the rate of soil formation, by influencing the rate of weathering and decomposition. iii) Topography: the topography is the shape or contour of the land surface. Soils formed on slopes then to be thinner than those that are formed on gently sloping lands. Low lying areas, which are poorly drained, have different chemical properties indicated by a grey colour down the soil profile. [pic] iv) Time: the longer the soil formation processes are in action the soil horizons would be more developed and also the soil would be more weathered. v) Biotic factors (vegetation and animals): Soil animals such as earthworms influence soil development by mixing soil components and aerate soils as they burrow through the soil. The mixing action enhances the rate of chemical and physical change in the soil. Fungi and bacteria decompose organic matter. The leaves and roots of plants add organic matter to the soil and contribute to the weathering of rocks. Soil Profile The soil profile is a vertical section of view of a soil showing the horizons or layer. [pic] Soil Profile OSuperficial surface layer consist mainly of plant remains such as fallen and other partially decomposed organic materials ATop soil – divided into two layers on the basis of soil colour ? The upper layer is darker due to a higher concentration of organic matter ? Usually there is an abundance of soil organisms and plant roots ? The top soil generally has a loose structure ? Usually the most fertile layer E BSubsoil- colour of this layer is red to orange due to the accumulation of mineral called oxides ? Proportion of gravel may begin to increase ? Clay content increases caused by the downward washing and accumulation of clay. ? The tap roots of some plants may be visible ? The soil is more compact CWeathered rock/Parent material – contain gravel or generally coarse material D/RBed Rock – Solid rock or parent materials Importance understanding the Soil Profile †¢ Soil horizons help to determine the soil type. †¢ Most plant nutrients are present in the top soil, which can be used to determine the soil fertility. †¢ Subsoil compactness will give a hint to the drainage of the soil. Type of bedrock and parent material will influence chemical and physical soil properties. Physical Properties of soils Soil texture The texture of a soil is determined by the ratio of sand, silt and clay particles present in the soil. The percentage of sand, silt and clay soils can b e used to classify soils into three main texture classes; [pic]Sandy soils —— Coarse [pic]Loamy soil —— Moderately coarse, medium to moderately fine †¢ Clay Soils ——- Fine NOTE – IN THE FIELD THERE ARE MANY VARATION TO THESE TEXTURE CLASSES. THE SOIL TEXTURE TRIANGLE BELOW SHOWS THE MAJOR SOIL TYPES. [pic] In the field soil texture can be determined by the feel method i. e. feeling the soil between the finger. Hence, soil texture can be simply defined as the feel of the soil between the fingers. Soil texture is very difficult to change in the field but on a small scale adding enough of another soil type and mixing thoroughly can modify the texture of one soil type. Soil Particles and size Gravel200 – 20 mm Fine gravel20 – 2 mm Coarsesand2 – 0. 2 mm Fine sand0. 2 – 0. 02 mm Silt0. 02 – 0. 002 mm Clayless than 0. 002 PROPERTIES OF SOIL S AND SOIL PARTICLES Clay ? Clay Particles stick together ? Particles are closely packed ? Highest percentage of micro pores ? Low porosity ? Good for fish ponds and growing rice ? High water holding capacity ? Moderated to high CEC ? Low drainage ? Moderate to high shrinkage and swelling Easily compacted ? Resist wind erosion ? Resist change in soil pH ? Retards leaching ? Rich in nutrients ? Poor structure ? Have negative electric charge (to attract Positively charged nutrients) Sand ? Particles do not stick together ? Part icles can be seen with the naked eye. ? Particles loosely arranged ? Large pore spaces ? Resist compaction ? Easily tilled soon after wetting ? OM decomposed rapidly ? Generally coarse ? Well aerated ? Well drained ? pH is easily changed ? Poor water holding ability ? High rate of leaching ? Low nutrient content Silt ? Particles are smooth and powdery ? Intermediate between clay and sand ? Particles feel smooth but not sticky ? Have and electric charge ? Easily compacted ? Easily blown by wind erosion LOAMS Soils classified as loams tend to demonstrate the properties of the three particles in an almost equal proportion. In the field, there are different types of loams e. g. clay loam, silty clay loam, sandy clay loam and sandy loam. Identifying Texture by Feel Feel test – Rub some moist soil between your fingers. †¢ Sand feels gritty. †¢ Silt feels smooth. †¢ Clays feel sticky. Ball squeeze test – Squeeze a moistened ball of soil in your hand. †¢ Coarse textures (sand or sandy loam) soils break with slight pressure. Sandy loams and silt loams stay together but change shape easily. †¢ Fine textured (clayey or clayey loam) soils resist breaking. Ribbon test – Squeeze a moistened ball of soil out between your thumb and fingers. †¢ Sandy soils will not ribbon. †¢ Loam, silt, silty clay loam or clay loam soil ribbons l ess than 1 inch. †¢ Sandy clay loam, silty clay loam or clay loam ribbons 1 to 2 inches. †¢ Sandy clay, silty clay, or clay soil ribbons more than 2 inches. A soil with as low as 20 percent clay, may behave as a heavy clayey soil. A soil needs 45 percent to over 60 percent sand to behave as a sandy soil. [pic] Activity ; Determine the texture of soil samples Soil characteristics |CLAY SOILS |SANDY SOILS |LOAMS | |Soil Conditions when dry | | | | |Do not from stable aggregates | |^ | | |Easily broken | |^ |^ | |Moderately easily broken | | |^ | |Hard and stable |^ | | | |   | | | | |Soil conditions when wet | | | | |Very stable aggregates |^ | | | |Moderately stable | | |^ | |Very unstable aggregates | |^ | | |   | | | | |Ability to form ribbons | | | | |Do not form ribbons | |^ | | |broken appearance of ribbons | | |^ | |Thin ribbons, will brake | |^ | |Very long & flexible ribbons |^ | | | Soil Structure Soil structure describes the arrangement of individual soil part icle. Individual soil particles come together to form aggregates, which may appear, in a number of shapes; [pic]Granular and crumb – aggregates are loosely arranged, usually found at the soil surface especially those having high organic matter content, it is considered to be the ideal structure soil structure. [pic] [pic]Plate like – generally found in the subsoil can be produced by soil compaction; this type of structure may reduce air, water movement and also hinder the penetration of roots. [pic] Blocky – this type of structure is usually seen in the Subsoil – associated with clay soils [pic] [pic]Prism like or columnar – found in the subsoil of clays [pic] [pic]Structure less soil has single grains or massive structures. [pic] ACTIVITY: Use a pitch fork to remove small sections of top soil and subsoil, identify the types of soil structure observed. Porosity Pores are spaces occurring naturally between soil particle and soil aggregates and direc tly depends on the soil structure. Porosity measures the amount of pore spaces in a soil sample. Pore spaces are important for the growth of plant roots and the movement of soil water and air. Based on size there are two types of pores observed in soils macro-pores and micro-pores. Macro-pores allow water and air to move through the soil at a faster rate, while micro-pores holds water more tightly therefore they act as long term storage of water. [pic] | | | |Pore spaces |Features | | | | |Low Porosity |Water logging, inadequate oxygen in the soil, hinder root penetration, micro-pores | | |dominates. | | | |Improve porosity |Add organic matter (compost) | | | | |Reduce porosity |Soil compaction | WHAT IS SOIL BULK DENSITY? This is the mass per unit volume of a dry soil sample. The volume includes the soil particles and pores spaces. Soils that are more compact usually have a higher bulk density that is having more soil particles and less pore spaces. REMINDERS Low porosity = higher bulk density Compact soils = low porosity = high bulk density* Clay soil = generally low porosity Sandy soils = higher porosity [pic] Activity: list the characteristics of soil with poor soil structure | | |How does soil structure influence plant growth? | SOIL COLOUR The colour of the soil gives clues to the physical and chemical properties of the soil. The soils can be used make a quick evaluation of soils in the field. Soils colours are mainly determine by oxides of metals and organic matter. Soils display a wide range colour for example; †¢ Reds †¢ Browns †¢ Yellows †¢ Black †¢ Green †¢ White Organic matter cause soils to be darker in colour, which may also hide the effect of oxides. Organic matter is associated with good soil structure as well as soil fertility. Iron oxides tend to produce soils that are yellow, brown or red. The colour will depend on the form iron oxide. Carbonates such as Calcite (CaCo3) give soils whitish colour. †¢ Bright soil colours are associated with well-drained soils and well aerated soils †¢ Grays and mixture bright colours and grays (mottled) indicates a poorly drained and poorly aerated soils †¢ When soil that are rich in iron oxides becomes water logged the iron is reduced form the ferrous to the ferric from which give the soil a grey colour |Condition | | |Subsurface soil colour | |Soils in anaerobic conditions, such as those in poorly | | |drained depressions, will normally have dull, grey |Water-logged soils, poor aeration | |B-horizons. Alternatively, aerobic soils on well-drained and |Dull grey (if in low rainfall soi ls 0-20 in) | |aerated slopes have bright reddish-brownish colours. | | |Well drained soils | | |Yellow, red-brown, black (if in forest soils) | | | | | |Poorly drained soils | | |Mottled grey (if in humid soils) | | | | SOIL WATER Water is essential for plant growth. Soil is capable of being a storehouse of water and becoming the main source of water for land plants. Soil water plays a significant role in several natural processes- evaporation, infiltration and drainage of water, diffusion of gases, conduction of heat, and movement of salts and nutrients are all dependent upon the amount of water present in soil. Plants meet their water requirement from water stored in soil. Soil moisture can be improved with aeration. Soil water is contained in soil pores Soil water contains dissolved substances for example nutrient elements and organic matter HOW DOES WATER MOVE UPWARD IN THE SOIL? Think about narrow tubes of different diameter placed vertically in beaker with water, as the diameter of the container decreases the height of the water in the tubes increases. The forces involved are called cohesion and adhesion. ? Cohesion attraction between water molecules ? Adhesion attraction between water and soil surface CLASSIFICATION OF SOIL WATER ? FIELD CAPACITY – water held in the soil after excess water has drained away ? CAPILARY WATER – water held by cohesion and adhesion [surface tension] ? GRAVITATIONAL WATER – water that drains under the influence of gravity especially after rain fall ? HYGROSCOPIC WATER – water that is held tightly around soil particles. This water is nit available to plants. Importance of soil Organic Matter ORGANIC MATTER (OM) = Decaying and decayed plant and animal remains †¢ Low percentage present in soil Colloidal in nature †¢ Have electric charge. †¢ Binds mineral particles to form stable aggregates. (improve soil structure) †¢ Humus is the final stage of decomposed material †¢ Responsible for the loose nature of productive soils. †¢ Increase water-holding ca pacity. †¢ Source of plant nutrients such as phosphorus and sulphur and major source of nitrogen. †¢ Supply food for soil organism. Chemical Properties of the soil Soil pH The term soil pH refers to the degree of acidity or alkalinity of a particular soil type. The soil pH or soil reaction is determined by the concentration of Hydrogen H+ and hydroxyl OH- in the soil. ? H+ higher than OH- soil acidic OH- higher than H+ soil alkaline soil In addition alkaline soils have more Ca, mg, K, and Na ions (base forming ions), while acid soil have more acid forming elements such as aluminium ions. ___________ Items & pH ________ Most acid soils 4. 0-6. 0 Lemon juice 2. 2-2. 4 Orange juice 3. 4-4. 0 Vinegar 4. 0-4. 5 Acid rain 3. 0-5. 0 Clean rain water 5. 5-5. 7 Fresh milk 6. 3-6. 6 Blood plasma 7. 0-7. 2 Mild soap solution 8. 5-10. 0 ____________________ The pH scale ranges from one to fourteen; a pH of 7 is neutral, above 7 acidity increases while below the neutral point alkalinity. | | |ACIDITY INCREASING | | |ALKALINITY | | | | | | | | |INCREASING | | | |1 |2 | |Nitrogen |Essential component of chlorophyll, promote growth especially leaves. | |Phosphorus |Important role in fruit and grain maturity, stimulates flowering, promote the development of | | |the root system. |Potassium |Carbohydrate formation and translocation, essential for the development of flowers, fruits | | |and seeds. | |Calcium |Occurs in the cell walls | |Sulphur |Formation of amino acid which forms protein | |Magnesium |Present in chlorophyll | |Micronutrients | | |Iron | |Sodium | | |Chlorine | | |Selenium | | |Manganese | | |Zinc | | |Copper | | |Molybdenum | | |Boron | | HOW THE SOIL HOLD PLANT NUTRIENTS? Cation exchange capacity (CEC) explains how the soil is able to hold cations such as Ca2+, Mg2+, K+, H+ and NH4+, which are in important for crop nutriti on. Clay and humus both have a net negative charge, so they give the soil the ability to attract cations. These ions will become attached to the soil complex (see diagram below). The CEC cation exchange value can be used in evaluating soil fertility. Soils with higher CEC are usually more fertile for example soil with high clay and or organic matter content. Anion such as sulphates, nitrates and phosphates are not attach to the soil particles therefore they are easily leached from the soil. HOW DOES CEC AFFECTS ABILITY OF THE SOIL TO BUFFER AGAINST pH CHANGES? [pic] MANAGING SOIL FERTILITY The soil is a very import resource in crop production. Therefore, it must be managed properly to ensure the best crop yield possible on a continuous basis. It is very important that we understand how the physical and chemical soil properties affect the fertility of soils FERTILIZERS Fertilizers are materials organic and inorganic which supply elements essential for the growth of plants Organic fertilizers Organic fertilizers are materials from animal waste and plant material which are used to supply plant nutrients. Examples of organic fertilizers; – Fresh animal manure – Sewage – Compost – Green manure Advantages of organic fertilizers †¢ Micro-organism breakdown organic, releasing nutrient slowly. Hence, nutrients are less likely to be wash out of the soil. †¢ Contains less nutrients per kg, therefore it has a low burn potential and less likely to pollute ground water and rivers. †¢ Contains natural growth factors, which are beneficial to crop plants. Disadvantages of organic fertilizers †¢ Nutrient content not precise depends on materials from which it is made †¢ Organic fertilizers have a low quantity of nutrient per kg it require relatively large quantity to be effective. This cause organic fertilizers to be bulky, making it more expensive to transport and difficult to apply. †¢ It may contain disease causing organism and/or weed seeds. Inorganic fertilizers These are inorganic salts containing elements required for plant growth manufactured from natural material or synthetic materials. Physical forms of fertilizers †¢ Salts †¢ Pellets †¢ Liquid Soluble forms of fertilizers †¢ Quick release – very soluble form †¢ Slow release – Fertilizer grade Commercial fertilizers are manufactured to contain a precise quantity. The is shown on the container by number which show the grade e. g. 14-28-14. What does 14 – 28 – 14 means? The fertilizer contains 14% N, 28% P and 14% k. A complete fertilizer contains N, P and K. Incomplete fertilizers supply one or two elements. Examples urea, triple super phosphates and murate of potash. Advantages of inorganic fertilizers †¢ The quantity of nutrient is known †¢ Concentrated source of nutrients †¢ Less bulky †¢ Nutrients are in a more available form, to be used by crops Disadvantages of inorganic fertilizers †¢ They have a high crop burn potential due to concentrated salts. †¢ Excessive use can easily pollute ground water and rivers †¢ Easily leached from the soil. †¢ Excessive use can cause soil to become saline [having too much salt] Practical activity Identifying types of fertilizers Methods of applying fertilizer †¢ Broad casting †¢ Placement -Circular banding – Row banding †¢ Foliar application †¢ Fertigation Importance of plant sexual reproduction in agriculture THINK OF THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF MANGOES THAT YOU HAVE SEEN OR EATEN. What cause this variation in plants? How does variation in crops (cultivars) benefits agriculture? The flower ? A specialized shoot consisting of reproductive organs ? Structures are arranged in whorls ? A complete flower has four whorls WhorlsOrgans a. Calyx – sepals b. Corolla- petals c. Stamen – filament and anther d. Pistil – Stigma, style & ovary One or more of the structures may be absent( |STRUCTURES |Type of flower | | Calyx |Corolla |Stamen |Pistil | | |( |( |( |- |Staminate | |( |( |- |( |Pistillate | |( |( |( |( |Hermaphrodite | ? Some plants have bisexual flowers only e. g. tomatoes, while others such as cantaloupe, have mal e and female flowers on the same plant. Plants such as some cultivars of papaya have male and female on the different plants. ? In addition to reproduction, the flowers of some plants are eaten (broccoli and cauliflower), while many are used for its aesthetic value (anthurium rose and chrysanthemum). Pollination ? Transfer of pollens which contains the male gamete to the stigma ? Pollination is necessary for fertilization ? Fertilization is necessary for the development of true fruits and viable seeds Types of pollinations Self pollination ? Transfer of pollen within a flower or different flowers on the same plant ? Only one plant is involve therefore genetic variation will be reduce ? Plants produce tends to be more uniform in characteristics. Cross pollination ? Flower are on different plants ? Plants have the characteristics of both parent ? Increase variations e. g. ? Yield ? Shape ? Size ? Increase resistance to disease ? Colour ? Taste ? Important for producing new varieties of crop plants and to improve existing varieties ? Crossing plants of the same species that are not closely related can produce new varieties. The offspring produce are called Hybrids. ? Hybrids tend to perform better than both parents i. e. produce higher yield and are more resistant to pest and diseases. Diagram showing crosspollination [pic] Fertilization is the joining of the male and female gamete to produce an embryo. The male gamete is found in the pollen grain while the female gametes are present in the ovule. Diagram showing processes involved in seed and fruit formation. [pic] THINK ABOUT IT You may have eaten or head about seed fruits such as oranges and grades. How is possible for these fruits to be formed without seeds. Mas Joe says that the corns he harvested have ‘scattered grains’ i. e. does not have uniforms rows of corn seeds. He believes that this due to the fact that the worker talked a lot during the planting of the crop. Using your scientific knowledge explain to him the true reason why his corns are ‘ scattered grains’ [pic][pic]

Coursework on ‘Othello’

A tragic event is a disastrous and dreadful event. A tragedy is usually when someone is killed. A hero is usually a man who is courageous and displays noble qualities; he is perceived by people to be very muscular and strong. So a tragic hero is a person who is an exceptional person, but has a fatal flaw. This is normally exposed and then twisted by the villain. To the audience he is amazing, and so when he is killed it is a tragedy for the audience as the world has lost such an outstanding person, the hero then can no longer contribute to society. In this play the tragic hero is Othello. He is a tragic hero as he as achieved a lot. He is an outsider, and also is not very young; in addition he is not white, but black. Even though he is all of this he still becomes a general and attracts a very beautiful seventeen year old girl. But he has a flaw; this is his jealousy. This flaw is twisted and exploited by the villain of the play, Iago. As the play goes on we see how jealousy corrupts the mind of Othello, resulting in his death. In this play there are many different themes shaped and formed. These are jealousy, men and women and race and colour. The main theme represented in this play, is jealousy. There are three main types of jealousy in this play they are professional, sexual and racial. Professional jealousy is portrayed by Iago in this play as he is jealous of Michael Cassio. This is because he was promoted to lieutenant by Othello and Iago was not. Iago calls Michael Cassio a ‘great arithmetician' he shows that he is jealous of Cassio as he is doing better than him even though he is also a outsider. He may have become Othello's lieutenant as he, like Othello, is an outsider. When Iago says ‘A fellow almost damned in a fair wife' he is showing that he is sexually jealous of Cassio as he is more sexually attractive than him and many women like him. This makes Iago feel more hate and jealousy for Cassio. When Iago is talking to Brabantio he says ‘An old black ram is tupping your white ewe' this is showing that Iago is racially jealous of Othello. Therefore this shows that Iago is jealous that Othello has married a beautiful and noble, young girl. All of these various types of jealousy felt by Iago in the play lead to terrible tragedies. The opening scene creates a build up of atmosphere with political and social aspects. The scene begins at night in Venice. Venice was infamous for political intrigue. There were many Machiavellian characters around. It was known to be an amoral place, where the people could not be trusted as they where cunning and sly. The scene is set at night where dark and underhand deeds are covered up, and not seen by the light of day. It begins with two characters, Roderigo and Iago, disputing. Roderigo is fervent to possess Desdemona, with the help of Iago. They talk about another character who has been appointed by the council, general of the Venetian army. We learn that he is a Moor and an outsider. Also we find out that one Michael Cassio is the lieutenant, a position which Iago craves. Othello in this scene is not referred to by name, and we soon learn that he is hated by Roderigo and Iago. All of this talk about Othello makes the audience anxious to find out about him and meet this quite exceptional person. This causes a mood and atmosphere of curiosity and dramatic tension. In the first scene of ‘Othello' Iago is introduced. This scene is very important as it lays the foundations for the tragedies which develop later in the play. As he is introduced he has a big impact on the audience. He is portrayed in the first scene to be a person who is in control of what he does, and someone who has control over others, and seems to be someone who is ambitious. Iago is brought into the first scene talking to Roderigo. Roderigo begins the dialogue with Iago. In his few opening lines he says ‘Iago, who hast had my purse as if the strings were thine, shouldst know of this. This shows that Roderigo does not trust Iago about him being able to procure Desdemona, from Othello for him. Also this shows the audience that Iago's services can be bought with money, revealing that he is mercenary. Furthermore the name Iago sounds Spanish, so to the Stuart audience this would show instantly that he was a malevolent character, as at this time to England the Spanish people were enemies. Following Roderigo's few words, Iago replies with a blasphemous ‘sblood' meaning God's blood. This shows his derision for Christ and for Christian values. This single word would have shocked and surprised the Stuart audience, who were religious. Iago asserts his hate towards the ‘Moor' Othello. He says in great detail about Othello ‘off-capped to him; I am worth no worse a place. But he, as loving his own pride and purposes, evades them with a bombast circumstance, horribly stuffed with epithets of war. ‘ Here he is telling Roderigo how he despises Othello for not letting him become a lieutenant, instead passing him over for ‘one Michael Cassio, a Florentine. Iago then calls Cassio ‘a great arithmetician' this is Iago being sarcastic; he is implying that Michael Cassio has no experience or idea of war. Iago speaks on talking about Michael Cassio by insulting where he is from, saying that he is a ‘Florentine'. He is saying that Cassio the Florentine knows nothing of war. This displays Iago of being racially prejudiced to foreigners and outsiders. This is the same for Othello; there may be a reason to why Cassio was chosen over Iago as Cassio and Othello are both outsiders. Iago comments on Cassio, of being ‘a fellow almost damned in a fair wife. This reveals that he may be sexually jealous of Cassio, as many women are attracted to him. Iago continues on, to again insult Cassio even more saying ‘that never set a squadron in the field, nor the division of a battle knows more than a spinster, unless the bookish theoric. ‘ This shows that he may be upset about being passed over for promotion, and his abhorrence for Cassio. I believe from what I have seen from what Iago says about Cassio, he may feel intellectually inferior to Cassio as he says ‘as masterly as he is' screening that Iago may feel he has been challenged by someone better and more academic than him. This is the audience's first sign of professional jealousy. Iago then finally ends this speech with a sardonic phrase of ‘his moorship' this is a derogatory connotation, which is a play on the phrase ‘his worship. ‘ Iago proves to Roderigo just how much he hates Othello, by insulting him and by slandering Cassio. With all of this hatred Iago has he causes the demotion of Cassio, the murder of Desdemona, the suicide of Othello and the downfall of himself. Our visions of Othello are all shaped by what Iago says in his dialogue with Roderigo. The audience may become doubtful of what Iago says as his views are amoral. There are important lines from this long speech revealing Iago's real character. But the main theme of this speech is how he hates Othello, and his lack of true loyalty and integrity. Moreover he tells Roderigo his plan and how it will affect him; Roderigo follows Iago foolishly not seeing that he is being used because of his desire to possess Desdemona. This speech also shows how Iago is able to ingeniously manipulate people. He begins to say ‘I follow him to serve my turn upon him' this is basically showing how is only serving Othello to help himself and using it for his advantage. This shows that Iago is ambitious as he knows what he wants, and does anything to get it. Also he is disloyal and self-serving as he is just getting what he wants out of his actions, and is betraying his so called friend Othello. In addition he is cunning and sly getting exactly what he wants, by deceiving people. He says an important line which is ‘heaven is my judge, not I for love and duty' this shows that Iago is not interested in love and does not really care about it. He has no concept of love. This leads to the later point of his attitude towards women in general. He also says the blasphemous phrase of ‘I am not what I am' this shows that he is going against God's words of ‘I am what I am. ‘ This shows that he once again is disrespectful of Christian values and of Christ. But this line could also be showing that Iago may have a layer to his character, which is unseen by other people. We can see that what Roderigo says is an echo of how Iago speaks, especially about Othello. We witness Roderigo say a racist comment about Othello, ‘the thick-lips owe. ‘ This is a phrase which is mirrored from the way Iago addresses Othello. Iago is manipulating people to become like him, evil. Iago feels he needs to instigate his plan and tells Roderigo to ‘rouse Brabantio, make after him, poison his delight, proclaim him in the streets. ‘ This shows that Iago delights in causing trouble and enjoys stage managing chaos. Roderigo is polite and kind in talking to the senator, getting them nowhere so it is Iago's crude and disgusting descriptions of ‘an old black ram, is tupping your white ewe' which make Brabantio irate. The animal imagery here is representing the sexual connection between Desdemona the noble women with the ‘Moor' general Othello. This sexual reference is then linked with the suggestion of Cassio being ‘a fellow almost damned in a fair wife,' and with his job to help match up Roderigo and Desdemona. This shows that Iago thinks of women to be objects, and disregards love. He is unable to understand love, or the relationships between men and women. We can see from this scene that Iago is able to control and manipulate people to his own advantage. From this scene altogether we see that Iago is a cynical malcontent. He is malicious in his acts and crude with his language, he is able to manipulate people for his own needs, and exaggerates situations to his own advantage. We see how he despises men who wear their hearts on their sleeves, and who don't look out for their own interests. He likes people, who are self-serving, and people who do evil deeds for money, people who are untrustworthy and who pretend to be honest. His speeches in these scenes are energetic and shocking to many audiences, they are full of egotistical disgust. Furthermore Iago has an underhand way of being absent when actions which he has instigated come to head. Iago is a compelling and sophisticated villain. In this play there are two main scenes where Iago puts his Machiavellian plans in to operation. Iago's plans are malicious; he puts his plans into action in act 2 scene 3, and in act 3 scene 3. In act 2 scene 3 all of Iago's tactics and ideas become reality. Upon arrival in Cyprus Iago persuades Cassio to have a drink by saying ‘come, lieutenant, I have a stoup of wine. ‘ Cassio keeps on refusing Iago's offers, as he has ‘very poor and unhappy brains for drinking. ‘ But Cassio is not able to resist it, and takes some wine, causing him to become ‘full of quarrel and offence. ‘ Iago perceives this as his chance to instigate his plan. Continuing to manipulate Roderigo effortlessly, he makes him start off a quarrel and a brawl with Cassio. Cassio gets wound up by Roderigo, as Roderigo gives witty remarks like ‘beat me? ‘ These comments from Roderigo and the fact that he is drunk cause Cassio to get aggravated, and therefore fight. Othello gets alerted by the brawl, and finds Montano and Cassio fighting. Montano is hurt, ‘zounds I bleed still. ‘ Othello asks ‘honest Iago' to find out what happened. This is dramatic irony as Othello thinks that Iago is an honest person, whereas the audience knows that he is not, that he is crude and evil. This puts the audience in the position of knowing more than the characters, increasing tension. Othello dismisses Cassio from his position, and he is demoted, just as Iago wanted. As Cassio is dismissed, Iago gets the chance to take his place, and get access to Othello so he can poison and corrupt his mind with his words. Iago speaks and acts in this scene as if he always has someone else's interests at heart. He enjoys presenting himself in the best possible light. In this scene as Othello is being informed on the brawl by Iago, Iago acts as if he wants to help Cassio, he says to Othello ‘I had rather have this tongue cut from my mouth than it should do offence to Michael Cassio. This is all part of Iago's plan to make himself look trustworthy and loyal, towards Othello. He here seems to be reluctant to accuse Cassio. This is not only to make Iago look loyal, but also to make Othello see how disgracefully his lieutenant has acted. Othello likes to here the direct truth, even though he appreciates the false ‘protection' of Cassio, given by Iago. We see Iago's ingenious and spiteful ideas when he decides to use Desdemona, who is innocent, and who he has no quarrel with, to ‘enmesh them all. ‘ We see how pleased he is in his speech, that he has the intelligence and power to turn Desdemona's ‘virtue into pitch. As before we see how Iago dislikes honesty and innocence. Even Iago's wife Emilia, is fooled in thinking that Iago wants to help Michael Cassio. Iago's only loyalty is to himself. Iago's imagery is crude, he will convince Othello that all the meetings that Iago and Desdemona are having, is an affair. He is planting the seeds of jealousy into Othello's mind. He tries to convince him that his wife wants Cassio, and that she will ‘undo her credit with the Moor. Ã¢â‚¬Ë œ In this scene Iago disrupts Othello's wedding night, and Iago turns Othello against the people he trusted and loved. Act 3 scene 3 is the pivotal scene where Iago puts his Machiavellian plans into operation. Iago wants Othello to perceive that Cassio is having an affair with Cassio. Iago in this scene once again is pretending to be friends with Cassio. Iago knows exactly how Othello operates, and so he knows how to get inside his head. Iago tries to avoid answering Othello's questions directly. He does this as he knows this builds up suspicion in Othello's mind. He also often imitates Othello's questions as he Othello says ‘is he honest. ‘ Subsequently Iago avoids the question and says ‘honest my lord! This is another technique that Iago uses to raise suspicion from ‘Othello. Iago when talking to Othello about Desdemona repeatedly reminds him how she had deceitfully behaved, and the painful reminder that he is an outsider. Iago tells Othello that she could have made other ‘natural' choices. Iago keeps angering Othello by manipulating and poisoning his mind. Iago tells Othello ‘look to your wife; observe her well with Cassio; where your eyes thus, not jealous nor secure. ‘ He essentially tells Othello to see his wife neutrally, and not to get angry when looking upon her with Cassio. Another way that Iago tries to persuade Othello is by saying ‘she did deceive her father, and when she seem'd to shake and fear your looks. ‘ Iago here tries to show Othello that she is not loyal and noble, as she already deceived her father by marrying him, because of what she wanted. So Iago is questioning Othello, on what is stopping her from doing it again. Iago pretends to care about Othello as he says ‘trust me I fear it has. I hope you will consider what is spoke comes from my love. ‘ He is telling Othello that he has his best interests at heart. After Iago knows that the poison he gave to Othello through words has held, and once Othello has become vengeful, he knows he must take the role of being a noble and loyal friend. There is irony here as Othello is seeking to kill Cassio; he is carrying out Iago's revenge for him. WE find out from this scene that Othello is weak and insecure, as the emotion of love that he has for Desdemona loses against Iago's crude language. Othello left alone he wonders ‘Why did I marry? ‘ This shows that he already knows that his wife is false. He begins to speak of ‘the curse of marriage. ‘ Although he resists Iago's version of Desdemona, it is the fake story of Cassio having a dream about her which breaks him. He returns angry much more angry with his words, but still does not know what to believe ‘I think my wife be honest, and think she is not. ‘ But we see from the crude images conjuring in his mind, and the violence of his speech that Iago is winning. He speaks violently of ‘poison, or fire, or suffocating streams. ‘ He curses ‘death and damnation' and says ferociously ‘I'll tear her all to pieces. We see here that Iago has fully corrupted his mind, and Othello like Roderigo is beginning to talk with crude and malicious language, just like Iago. Iago's plans in act 3 scene 3 are successful, as he is able to demote Cassio from his position. Iago is able to successfully play a number of roles, and is able to adapt his tone and style to suit any occasion. In this scene Iago acts apparently loyal, and as if he has everybody else's interests at heart. He presents himself as a noble friend to Cassio, and in the best possible light. From discrediting Cassio, Iago is able to get close to Othello. This then means that he is able to corrupt and poison Othello's mind, with his crude words. The demotion weakens Othello's position, and gives Iago a great advantage to put his wicked plan into operation. As Iago gains access to Othello's mind from Cassio, he is able to use his skills in manipulation, to make Othello see things that are not actually happening. He makes Othello perceive that Cassio is having an affair with Desdemona, and that she is being unfaithful towards him. Also he makes Othello demote Cassio because of a brawl, which Roderigo initiated. These events, which are stage managed by Iago all lead to the tragic denouement, Othello and Desdemona's deaths. The way he acts in this scene is similar to the way he acts in act 1 scene, as he pretends to have Roderigo's interests at heart in act 1 scene 1, and in act 2 scene 3 he acts as if he has Cassio's interests at heart. In both scenes he appears to be loyal to his friends, when he is actually fooling everyone and is only loyal to himself. Also in both of these scenes he is always manipulating people, just to see the downfall of Othello. Part of Iago's success in act 2 scene 3 lies in the fact that he tells all of his victims exactly what they want to hear, or he uses arguments which would make his victims think like him, in a crude malicious manner. Act 3 scene 3 is the pivotal point in the play because Othello is convinced of his wife's corruption; Othello makes a sacred oath never to change his mind about her or to soften his feelings towards her until he acts out a violent revenge. At this point, Othello is fixed in his course, and the disastrous ending of the play is unavoidable. Othello swears to Iago that he will kill Desdemona and Cassio. Just as the play replaces the security of peace with the anxiety of domestic strife, Othello replaces the security of his marriage with the hateful paranoia of an alliance with Iago. Iago is the one who causes Othello's downfall, as he sows the seeds of suspicion in his mind. Iago's methods in this scene are more subtle. He pretends to be reluctant to speak. Desdemona keeps irritating Othello, by asking when he will reinstate Cassio. This angers Othello as; he is already suspicious of Cassio having an affair with Desdemona. Iago persistently acts as if he is protecting Cassio. Othello becomes more and more suspicious from what Iago tells him, and Iago uses ‘key' words which get to Othello, for example ‘think' and ‘honest. ‘ We can see how Iago falsely protects Cassio as he says, ‘I think Cassio's an honest man. ‘ Iago is protecting Cassio and not telling Othello the direct truth. This causes Othello to feel more suspicious of Cassio. Iago tells Othello about how Cassio and Desdemona have secretly been meeting, and so when Othello perceives it himself he becomes infuriated. Othello gives the secret of his downfall to Iago. This is Othello's flaw. Othello says ‘when I love thee not, chaos is come again. ‘ The significance is that if Othello stops loving Desdemona he will disintegrate, and crumble to pieces. Iago now has something to act on, and can exploit this feeling, to ‘poison' and destroy Othello. Iago's final words in this scene chillingly mock the language of love and marriage: ‘I am your own forever. ‘ Iago is a malicious, malevolent and crude person. He is able to manipulate, and twist people's feelings to his own advantage. He is brilliant at stage managing events, and is capable of hoodwinking others to believe he is honest. When Iago speaks in his soliloquies he is boastful and dismissive. Iago is a very untrustworthy character, as we have seen from how he has fooled everyone to trust him. Iago is a complex character, only himself and the audience knows what he is really like. In this play we see how Iago is able to put his skills of manipulation into act. Many believe he may have a homosexual side and tries to replace Desdemona, but this is only some views as his relationship with Othello is very complicated. Iago is highly intellectual socially. In this play he is the bringer off death and pain upon many characters, he is like the grim reaper. Iago is partly responsible for bringing death to Othello, but it is not all his fault. It is true that he used his skills to manipulate people, and his ability to ‘poison' and corrupt people's minds to bring Othello's downfall, but it is also the faults of the people he manipulated, for being weak minded. Roderigo, who was firstly manipulated, followed Iago as his drive and passion to possess Desdemona got in the way. Cassio's flaw was that he only became manipulated as he believed Iago was his true friend, and that he was there to help him, he was also too trusting. Desdemona also had a fatal flaw, which was that she could be deceitful; also she loved and trusted Othello to a great extent. Finally Iago's greatest achievement was convincing and manipulating Othello. Othello has the most significant fatal flaw; he had a high amount of jealousy. Iago was able to exploit all of these weaknesses. But the biggest was Othello's which all lead to the catastrophic deaths of Othello and his Desdemona.

Causes of Poverty

Causes of Poverty Free Online Research Papers â€Å"Most people have an idea of what it means to be poor. Many think of conditions such as hunger, homelessness, preventable diseases, unemployment, and illiteracy as elements of poverty †(pg1;Alters). In my eyes poverty is the condition of having little or no money, goods, or means of support. Usually people living in poverty lack the essentials; for instants water, food, and shelter. .There are many causes of poverty, all though not all are accepted universally. Poverty is said to be cause by climate, Environment ,Geographic factor, lack of natural resources, Disease, lacking rule of law and also lack of democracy, infrastructure, health car, education, Government corruption, free trade, racial discrimination and overpopulation. I personally feel and agree that it is caused by all these factors. I think that the main reason for poverty is Government corruption and lack of education. As you may notice many countries living in poverty do not have an organized or democratic g overnment. Many scholars have named Capitalism, Socialism, Communism, Monarchy, Fascism and Totalitarianism as causes of poverty. There are many causes of poverty and how it can be measured.â€Å"Poverty researchers refer to two types of poverty: absolute poverty and relative poverty. Absolute poverty means that a persons income is not sufficient to afford basic goods and services. Relative poverty compares a persons income to the median (average) household income in that country. Thus, it measures the gap between an income able to afford typical goods and services and incomes below that level†(page75.Alters). Absolute poverty is also considered when a percentage of a population is eating less food than is required to sustain the human body which is 1200-1700 calories for women and 2000-2500 calories for men. Extreme poverty is when one is living on less then one US$ per day. Relative poverty measures the extent to which a households financial resources falls below an average income for the economy. Many criticize these measurements since in parts of the world as East and South Asia have decreased in th e population of extreme poverty from 28 percent to 21 percent from 1990 to 2001. On the other hand other regions as Sub- Saharan Africa have had an increase of extreme poverty from 41 percent to 48 percent from 1990 to 2001. â€Å"Many people throughout the world are in poverty because they are unemployed or underemployed and live in areas where economic opportunities are severely limited†(page13.Alters). I feel that the reason many people are unemployment and living in poverty is due to the lack of education and government structure. â€Å"When world leaders meet in New York in September they will laud the progress that has been made on the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), note somberly that much more needs to be done and then promise to do more before 2015 to get them on track.With 1.4 billion living below the $1.25-a-day global poverty line, the number of hungry or undernourished people rising above one billion as food prices have risen, many countries a long way from the human development goals, and rich countries focused on austerity, these leaders will find it hard to be upbeat.† (Journel.David Hulme) I get the sense that the government is realizing that they have been at fault and that their actions need to to speak louder then their words. I feel if education was imposed upon the youth in developing countries and in general countries around the world the people and government would support each in economical growth and people would be able to excel and come out of poverty. I feel that poverty should be considered as not being able to live a comfortably, not having a place to live, and not being able to provide the basic needs for your self and family like food, water, medical attention, and an education. I have known many people that are living in poverty and don’t attend school so that they could work to help their family survive in America. America is not a poor country ;I could imagine how the people from countries like Africa, and Dominican Republic live. I am Dominican and Puerto Rican. When I go to Dominican Republic I see how these children are on the streets asking for money. I see that if it weren’t for there corrupt government which doesn’t provide their people with home and shelter the children would be living in these conditions. On the other hand I was in Puerto Rico is a common wealth, you can see the difference between Puerto Rico and Dominican Republic. I did not see any children on the streets asking for money in P uerto Rico. Other indications show that the poverty rate is improving due to increase of Life expectancy since WW2. On the other hand poverty has its effects; Two of many effects are starvation and hunger and human trafficking. Hunger is the painful sensation or state of weakness caused by the need of food and starvation is a state of extreme hunger resulting from lack of essential nutrients over a prolonged period. When a person is hunger they experience stomach contractions. In my case of experience mild pain in my stomach called hunger pangs. A single hunger contraction lasts about 30 seconds. It is said that Hunger pangs usually do not begin until 12 to 24 hours after the last ingestion of food, in starvation. In 2003 more than 25,000 people died of starvation according to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. When a person starves they lose large amounts of fat and muscle mass as the body breaks down these tissues for energy. This process is called Catabolysis which is the body breaking down muscles and other tissues in order to keep very important systems working in th e body such as the nervous system and heart muscle. Another reason for starvation is the lack of vitamins which leads to the development of anemia, beriberi, pellagra, and scurvy these diseases then lead to diarrhea, skin rashes, edema, and heart failure. Another effect of poverty is Human trafficking. Women are taken against their will and used as sex slaves for money . Some women are tricked into scams since the men who take them captive tell them they are going to bring them to a country like America and will provide them with a job where they could make money and help their families. Not only women are trafficked but children also. Newborn are stolen to be given to a rich couples who are infertile and want to adopting a child. In conclusion we see how there are different measurements of poverty and the different effects poverty have on men, women, and children. Poverty is the condition of having little or no money, goods, or means of support. Usually people living in poverty lack the essential as water, food, and shelter. Poverty is said to be cause by climate, Environment ,Geographic factor, lack of natural resources, Disease, lacking rule of law and also lack of democracy, infrastructure, health car, education, Government corruption, free trade, racial discrimination and overpopulation. Research Papers on Causes of PovertyStandardized TestingInfluences of Socio-Economic Status of Married MalesTwilight of the UAWThe Effects of Illegal ImmigrationBringing Democracy to AfricaRelationship between Media Coverage and Social and19 Century Society: A Deeply Divided EraDefinition of Export QuotasResearch Process Part OneQuebec and Canada